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Ukraine lies in the central portion of Europe, occupying the southwestern and southern parts of the East European Plain (more than 94% of the area). The country stretches 1,316 kilometers (km) from west to east (from 22 to 40 degrees E) and almost 900 km from north to south (from 44 to 52 degrees N). The total area of Ukraine is 603,550 square kilometers.

Three main physiographical zones can be recognized within the flatland portion of Ukraine: mixed forests (Ukrainian Polissya), forest-steppe, and steppe. The highland and montane regions of Ukraine include the Ukrainian Carpathians in the west and the Crimean Mountains in the southern part of the country. The highest altitudes within the plain part of Ukraine reach 300–475 m above sea level (a.s.l.); the highest peaks are Hoverla (2061 m) in the Carpathians and Roman-Kosh (1542 m) in the Crimean Main Range. Almost all of the territory of Ukraine lies within the temperate climatic zone, with the exception of the Crimean South Coast, which belongs to the submediterranean zone and shows some subtropical climatic features. The average temperatures of January vary from -8 degrees Centigrade in the northeastern part to +2 or +4 degrees Centigrade in the southern part (the South Coast of Crimea). The average July temperature varies in these regions from +18–19 to +23–24 degrees Centigrade respectively. The annual precipitation in the northwestern plains is ca. 600–700 mm; the southeastern steppe regions receive as little as 300 mm of rainfall a year. Yet, in the mountains there are regions in which up to 1000–1200 mm (the Crimea) or 1600 mm (the Carpathians) of rain falls annually.

The water resources of Ukraine include rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, swamps and mires, and underground waters. There are more than 22,000 rivers in Ukraine; their total length is more than 170,000 km. The main rivers are: the Dnipro (= Dnieper) with its largest tributaries the Prypyat and the Desna; the Dunai (= Danube), the Dnister, the Pivdenny Bug (= Southern Bug), the Zahidny Bug (= Western Bug), and the Siversky Dinets (= Siversky Donets). Almost all these rivers belong to the Black and Azov Seas basins; only 4% of Ukrainian rivers flow to the Baltic Sea. The water regime of many rivers is deeply transformed by artificial water reservoirs. The largest of them (a cascade of six reservoirs) are on the Dnipro. Ukraine has more than 3,000 lakes and estuaries (coastal salt lakes, limans) covering a total area of 200,000 hectares (ha). Forty lakes are comparatively large, covering an area of more than 10 square km each. The largest lakes are the Svityaz and the Turske in the northwestern part of the Ukrainian Polissya. The largest estuary lake is the Dnister Liman. The coastal lines of the Black and Azov Seas in Ukraine stretch for 2800 km.

Soils of Ukraine are diverse; approximately 650 types and varieties of soil are currently recognized by soli scientists. The most fertile soils, chernozems (black soil), occupy ca. 60% of all agricultural lands of the country, especially in the forest-steppe and steppe zones. Arable lands cover 57.5% of the country’s territory.

Starting from the prehistoric times of the Tripillya (= Tripolye) culture, the basic mode of use of natural resources in Ukraine was agriculture, the cultivation of crops. This is clearly reflected in the nation’s mentality, its attitude and profound respect for nature.

However, there have been examples of some extremities and abuses in the use of nature and natural resources in Ukraine. These were especially dramatic at the end of the XIX century and in the first half of the XX century, when land resources were used in an unwise and exhaustive way. The steppes were extensively transformed into arable lands; new mines and quarries for developing deposits and extracting minerals were created; new industrial objects were created, etc. According to expert evaluations by O. Subtelny, Ukraine provided ca. 70% of raw materials in the former Russian Empire, but only 15% of goods production.

A very important factor in changing the society-environment relationships in the former Russian Empire was created by changes in the land use structure as a result of implementation of Stolypin’s land reform in 1909 (Note: P. A. Stolypin, 1862–1911, Russian statesman and political reformer; Russian Prime Minister and Minister of Internal Affairs from 1906 to 1911). In this period, every peasant had an opportunity to become a landowner; only forests, meadows, wetlands and water bodies were usually retained as community ownership. This land reform was especially successful and popular in Ukraine. It promoted independent farming and traditional Ukrainian modes of a rural economy, including traditional land use, such as rotation and alternation of crops, better agricultural production, use of natural fertilizers. At the same time, the reform stimulated a strong agricultural expansion resulting in destruction of forests, ploughing of virgin lands, and devastation of some other natural ecosystems.

Negative changes in the environment during a rapid economic development of Russian Empire caused a certain concern among scientists and the general public that led to development of nature conservation activities, especially in Ukraine. The first nature reserve in the country (Russian Empire) has been created in Ukraine. It was the well-known steppe reserve Askania-Nova. This was soon followed by the Pilyavin Reserve in Volhynia; Stuzhytsya, Tysa, Knyazh-Dvir, Pip Ivan Marmaroshsky (the Carpathians) and some other protected territories, e.g. in the Vorskla River valley.

Unfortunately, after the well-known events of 1917, “new” methods and modes were introduced into the national economy, which were often in conflict with both traditional and scientifically justified approaches to the use of natural resources. The process of “industrialization” in the USSR was in fact aimed primarily at extensive, wasteful use of both natural and human resources. The total obligatory collectivization forcefully introduced into agricultural sectors in 1929 resulted in a dramatic decline and degradation of agricultural production. One of the tragic results of this policy was the terrible famine in Ukraine in 1932–1933. Despite all political proclamations, slogans and calls “to improve and conquer nature”, traditional land use methods were lost, and the natural stability and equilibrium of the environment were severely violated. Nature conservation actions were very limited in scope. The main features of the Ukrainian mentality, love of the native land and respect for nature, were also destroyed.

The Decree of the Soviet Government “On the plan for planting field-protecting forests and forest shelter belts, introduction of grassland crop rotation, creation of ponds and water bodies in order to ensure high and stable harvests in the steppe and forest-steppe regions of the European part of the USSR” (1948) and some other similar decrees were intended to signify the overwhelming triumph of the “new ideology” in using nature and natural resources. Indeed, it was a step forward, if we consider afforestation efforts (more than 1,000,000 ha of field-protecting forests and 430,000 shelter belts). However, all these measures were implemented with the usual Soviet gigantomania, and they greatly ignored basic laws of nature and traditional land use practices. In addition, some protected natural territories in Ukraine were liquidated. The same years were marked by a campaign to combat so-called “harmful animals and pests”. The administrative and bureaucratic approach favoured gigantic projects of nature transformation. Construction of huge dams and water reservoirs on the Dnipro is a good example; it resulted in considerable losses of lands that were extremely valuable from agricultural, ecological and cultural viewpoints. Ambitious plans were implemented for irrigation, amelioration and “better use” of land resources (use of chemical fertilizers, pest control chemicals, etc; the so-called “chemisation of agriculture”). The unrestricted desire to expand the areas of arable lands resulted in the virtual disappearance of ca. 300 small rivers in Ukraine, as well as in land erosion and black dust storms.

The nuclear catastrophe at the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant on 26 April 1986 was the ultimate point of the ecological disaster in Ukraine. The Chornobyl aftermaths extend far beyond strictly environmental issues to a whole complex of socioeconomic, medical, biological, psychological, ethical, ideological and cultural problems. The Chornobyl catastrophe emphasizes the close ties between the ethnos and environment, and the tragic results caused by violation and destruction of these ties. In the mid-1980s Ukraine was at the brink of ecological crisis.

The right of Ukrainian citizens to a favorable environment was first proclaimed in the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine. Starting from 1991, independent Ukraine is forming its environmental policy as a part of the national policy.

An outline of the present state of the environment Land.

State Committee for Statistics of Ukraine, the land resources of Ukraine mounted to 60.4 million hectares at the beginning of 1999.

The changes in the structure and area of land resources are taking place during a process of allocation of land for forming protective forest plantations and field-protecting forest strips, construction of anti-erosion hydrotechnical structures, silt-catching basins and river-bank reinforcements to protect agricultural lands, and the recultivation of deteriorated lands. The decrease of the tillage area also took place during a process of turning heavily eroded, swamped and flooded areas into hayfields and pasturelands.

Forests.

According to the latest forest inventory as of 1 January 1998, the forest resource area in Ukraine is 10.8 million hectares, 9.4 million hectares of which are covered with forest vegetation. Percentage of forest area is 15.6%.

Total timber stands in forests are estimated at 1,736 mill mі. Average timber stock per hectare of forest area is 185 mі. The stock of matured and overmatured forest stands is 237 mі. Average increment per hectare of forest area is 3.8 mі.

Forests of the first group account for 55.8% of the total forest area. The rest is forest of the second group. Coniferous trees account for 42% of the forest area, hard-leafed for 13.3%, other tree species for 0.5%, and bushes for 0.4%.

In terms of forest areas and timber stands Ukraine is experiencing a shortage of forests.

Almost all of the forests of Ukraine are situated in zones of negative impact from industrial pollution. Much harm was done to forests by the Chernobyl catastrophe. More than 3,500,000 ha of forests have been affected by radioactive contamination. During recent years, the forests of Ukrainian Polissya (forest zone) provide considerably less timber and non-timber (mushrooms, wild berries and nuts, medicinal plants, etc.) production than before the catastrophe.

Karst and erosion.

About 30% of Ukraine’s territory is affected by karst processes, including 27% of lands with open karst. These processes are especially active in the Volhynian, Ternopil, Vinnytsya and Mykolayiv Regions, and in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. More than 50% of the area of disturbed slopes is affected by landslips.

Water resources and wetlands.

In 1998 the volumes of water used by main sectors of economy decreased and were:

The most essential water consumers are:

industry – 5,899 million m3, agriculture – 3,571 million m 3 and municipal services – 3,441million m 3.

Now natural mires and bogs cover not less than 2% of Ukraine’s territory. Only in the northern part of the country (Polissya) this figure reaches 6%.

Seas.

Technogenous impact on the natural processes of the Black and Azov Seas shoreline development, especially near large seaports, river deltas and large cities, is accompanied by active abrasion, land degradation, and doing great damage to ecologically and recreationally valuable territories.

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